Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA is a nucleic acid; alongside proteins and carbohydrates, nucleic acids compose the three major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen-containing nucleobase—either guanine (G), adenine (A), thymine (T), or cytosine (C)—as well as a monosaccharide sugar called deoxyribose and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. According to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to make double-stranded DNA.
DNA is well-suited for biological information storage. The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage, and both strands of the double-stranded structure store the same biological information. Biological information is replicated as the two strands are separated. A significant portion of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences.
The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes biological information. Under the genetic code, RNA strands are translated to specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins. These RNA strands are initially created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription.
Within cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts. In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides which is shown below.
Structure of a nucleotide. The nucleotide subunits of DNA and RNA are made up of three elements: a five-carbon sugar, an organic nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group.
Nucleic acids are long polymers of repeating subunits called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three components:a five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA); a phosphate (—PO4) group; and an organic nitrogencontaining base.
When a nucleic acid polymer forms, the phosphate group of one nucleotide binds to the hydroxyl group of another, releasing water and forming a phosphodiester bond. A nucleic acid, then, is simply a chain of five-carbon sugars linked together by phosphodiester bonds with an organic base protruding from each sugar as shown in the following figure.
The structure of a nucleic acid
Two types of organic bases occur in nucleotides. The
first type, purines, are large, double-ring molecules found in
both DNA and RNA; they are adenine (A) and guanine
(G). The second type, pyrimidines, are smaller, single-ring
molecules; they include cytosine (C, in both DNA and
RNA), thymine (T, in DNA only), and uracil (U, in RNA
only).
The above two figure is showing you
The structure of a nucleic acid and the organic nitrogen-containing bases. In a nucleic acid, nucleotides are linked to one another
via phosphodiester bonds, with organic bases protruding from the chain. The organic nitrogenous bases can be either purines or
pyrimidines. In DNA, thymine replaces the uracil found in RNA.
DNA
Organisms encode the information specifying the amino acid sequences of their proteins as sequences of nucleotides
in the DNA. This method of encoding information is very similar
to that by which the sequences of letters encode information in a
sentence. While a sentence written in English consists of a combination of the 26 different letters of the alphabet
in a specific order, the code of a DNA molecule consists of different combinations of the four types of nucleotides in specific sequences such as CGCTTACG. The information encoded in DNA is used in the everyday metabolism of the organism and is passed on to the organism’s descendants.
DNA molecules in organisms exist not as single chains folded into
complex shapes, like proteins, but rather as double chains. Two DNA polymers wind around each other like the outside and inside rails of a circular staircase. Such a winding
shape is called a helix, and a helix composed of two chains winding
about one another, as in DNA, is called a double helix. Each step of
DNA’s helical staircase is a basepair, consisting of a base in one
chain attracted by hydrogen bonds to a base opposite it on the other
chain. These hydrogen bonds hold the two chains together as a duplex The base-pairing rules are rigid: adenine can pair only with
thymine (in DNA) or with uracil (in RNA), and cytosine can pair only with guanine. The bases that participate in base-pairing are said to be complementary to each other. Additional
details of the structure of DNA and how it interacts with RNA
in the production of proteins can be found in my next blog till that wait.
Conclusion:
1)Where the calculus is coming into picture ?Calculus deals with the concept of maxima and minima and domain of function where this max or min exist.Here the Function is H-Bond that is required to be maximized to minimizes the energy of DNA system we see that this maximization of H-Bond can only be achieved iff the two strands of Nucleotides undergo rotation about central axis generating Double Helical structure of DNA.
This H-bond maximization as the function variable along x and y axis can be represented by following figure.
The point is what are the two variables Along x and y axis upon which H-bond depends in other word H-bond=F(x,y).This x and y variable is required to be found as a research work.
2) Base sequence determines the information stored in the human and how we can upgrade it and can transfer the DNA information of animals in the human to learn their language and knowledge which they can't share with us .If this transfer of knowledge becomes possible we no longer need to study the already present material but we only require to imagine beyond our knowledge whose base will be the knowledge of our forefathers.
You can follow me on Twitter and Facebook.
DNA is well-suited for biological information storage. The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage, and both strands of the double-stranded structure store the same biological information. Biological information is replicated as the two strands are separated. A significant portion of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences.
The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes biological information. Under the genetic code, RNA strands are translated to specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins. These RNA strands are initially created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription.
Within cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts. In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides which is shown below.
Nucleic acids are long polymers of repeating subunits called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three components:a five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA); a phosphate (—PO4) group; and an organic nitrogencontaining base.
When a nucleic acid polymer forms, the phosphate group of one nucleotide binds to the hydroxyl group of another, releasing water and forming a phosphodiester bond. A nucleic acid, then, is simply a chain of five-carbon sugars linked together by phosphodiester bonds with an organic base protruding from each sugar as shown in the following figure.
The structure of a nucleic acid
Two types of organic bases occur in nucleotides. The
first type, purines, are large, double-ring molecules found in
both DNA and RNA; they are adenine (A) and guanine
(G). The second type, pyrimidines, are smaller, single-ring
molecules; they include cytosine (C, in both DNA and
RNA), thymine (T, in DNA only), and uracil (U, in RNA
only).
The structure of a nucleic acid and the organic nitrogen-containing bases. In a nucleic acid, nucleotides are linked to one another
via phosphodiester bonds, with organic bases protruding from the chain. The organic nitrogenous bases can be either purines or
pyrimidines. In DNA, thymine replaces the uracil found in RNA.
DNA
Organisms encode the information specifying the amino acid sequences of their proteins as sequences of nucleotides
in the DNA. This method of encoding information is very similar
to that by which the sequences of letters encode information in a
sentence. While a sentence written in English consists of a combination of the 26 different letters of the alphabet
in a specific order, the code of a DNA molecule consists of different combinations of the four types of nucleotides in specific sequences such as CGCTTACG. The information encoded in DNA is used in the everyday metabolism of the organism and is passed on to the organism’s descendants.
DNA molecules in organisms exist not as single chains folded into
complex shapes, like proteins, but rather as double chains. Two DNA polymers wind around each other like the outside and inside rails of a circular staircase. Such a winding
shape is called a helix, and a helix composed of two chains winding
about one another, as in DNA, is called a double helix. Each step of
DNA’s helical staircase is a basepair, consisting of a base in one
chain attracted by hydrogen bonds to a base opposite it on the other
chain. These hydrogen bonds hold the two chains together as a duplex The base-pairing rules are rigid: adenine can pair only with
thymine (in DNA) or with uracil (in RNA), and cytosine can pair only with guanine. The bases that participate in base-pairing are said to be complementary to each other. Additional
details of the structure of DNA and how it interacts with RNA
in the production of proteins can be found in my next blog till that wait.
Conclusion:
1)Where the calculus is coming into picture ?Calculus deals with the concept of maxima and minima and domain of function where this max or min exist.Here the Function is H-Bond that is required to be maximized to minimizes the energy of DNA system we see that this maximization of H-Bond can only be achieved iff the two strands of Nucleotides undergo rotation about central axis generating Double Helical structure of DNA.
This H-bond maximization as the function variable along x and y axis can be represented by following figure.
The point is what are the two variables Along x and y axis upon which H-bond depends in other word H-bond=F(x,y).This x and y variable is required to be found as a research work.
2) Base sequence determines the information stored in the human and how we can upgrade it and can transfer the DNA information of animals in the human to learn their language and knowledge which they can't share with us .If this transfer of knowledge becomes possible we no longer need to study the already present material but we only require to imagine beyond our knowledge whose base will be the knowledge of our forefathers.
You can follow me on Twitter and Facebook.
https://t.co/8cyR1up9JQ Gravitational field is the distortion of Space Time 4D fabric by mass m making plane convex d pic.twitter.com/MWkPlGK5U0
— Abraham Malik (@brhmmlk93_malik) February 8, 2015
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